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\pard 
{\plain \b Ecology: Contexts of Change\par
}\pard 
{\plain \par
}{\plain \b What were global conditions like during the evolution of the genus }{\plain \b\ul Homo}{\plain \b ?}{\plain \par
}{\plain The Pleistocene, an Ice Age lasting 1.8 million years ago until ca. 10,000 years ago, had\par
}{\plain \tab 15 major cold periods\par
}{\plain \tab 50 minor glacial advances\par
}{\plain \tab ca. 1 major cold period per 100,000 years\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \b How did genus }{\plain \b\ul Homo}{\plain \b  survive?}{\plain \par
}\sect \sectd \sbknone\headery1440\footery1440\endnhere\endnhere 
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{\pntext\pard 1.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain natural selection is }{\plain \b biological adaptation}{\plain \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 2.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain another type of adaptation is }{\plain \b cultural adaptation}{\plain \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 3.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain cultural adaptation differs from }{\plain \b social adaptation}{\plain  (as found in domestic animals, other 
primates, etc) in that it is }{\plain \b learned}{\plain  through lengthy and complex forms (e.g., language, 
technology) of collective transmission from one generation to another\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 4.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain in the }{\plain \b Pleistocene}{\plain  (which lasted 1.75 million years, from 1.8 million years ago to 10,000 
years ago) saw both the appearance and disappearance of }{\plain \b Homo Erectus}{\plain \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 5.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain by the Middle Paleolithic, }{\plain \b Homo Erectus}{\plain  (remains date between 1.8myr - 200,000 years 
ago) became the first hominid to migrate out of Africa to the Middle East, Asia, and 
Europe\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 6.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain }{\plain \b physical characteristics}{\plain : larger brain (750-1250 cc) than earlier hominids (500-800 cc), 
increased body size and heavier build, distinctive cranium with long low vault, large 
browridges, dentition like Homo sapiens. \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 7.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain }{\plain \b technology}{\plain  evolves through the period 460,000 ya-230,000 ya from coarser stone 
material (sandstone) and heavier tools to finer material (quartz) and lighter, better quality 
tools\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 8.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain }{\plain \b diet}{\plain  was that of hunter-gatherer: e.g., deer, horses, birds & eggs, fruits, berries, tubers\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 9.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain H. Erectus had control of}{\plain \b  fire}{\plain  perhaps as early as 1.4 mya (Chesowanja, Kenya)\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 10.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain }{\plain \b advantages of fire}{\plain : warmth, cooking food, fire-hardening tools, better light for tool 
making, chasing away predators/competitors for caves, extending daylight activities \'96> 
increased sociability/learning\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard 11.\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvl1\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta .}}

{\plain }{\plain \i certainly}{\plain  had }{\plain \b shelters}{\plain , would }{\plain \i probably}{\plain  have had }{\plain \b clothing}{\plain , }{\plain \i may}{\plain  have had}{\plain \b  language}{\plain \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\plain \b \par
}{\plain \b \par
}\page {\plain \b New Finds Continue to Revise Picture of Human Evolution}{\plain \par
}\pard \s2\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain {\f1 \'43}\tab now first hominids (upright, bipedal locomotion) date to greater than 6 myrs\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\plain \b What are Human Adaptive Advantages?}{\plain \par
}\sect \sectd \sbknone\headery1440\footery1440\endnhere\endnhere 
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\pard\par {\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain omnivorous diet (2.5 myrs +, 6-7 myrs?) (greater }{\plain \ul niche breadth}{\plain , = specific resources 
chosen by an organism)\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain communication (language, importance of memory, cultural transmission) origin of 
language at 3 myrs?  1.6 myrs?  50,000 to 100,000 years ago?\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain bipedalism }{\plain \ul predates}{\plain  increase in brain size, confers advantages that lead to further 
modifications (locomotion, cooling brain, birth canal, better nutrition, > survival rate, etc)\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain ecotonal habitat (}{\plain \ul ecotone}{\plain  = area between two biotic zones)\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain social unit, especially male-female relationship\par
}\pard \fi0\li2160 {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain how suppression of oestrus cycle came about is not known, but \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \tab \tab Humans are constantly sexually receptive (no \'93heat\'94 cycle)\par
}\pard \li1440 {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain male-female attitudes co-evolved: increased sensitivity to one another\'92s roles, 
mutual aid potential, etc., =  }{\plain \ul learning}{\plain  (did this have to do with bipedalism too?)\par
}\pard \fi0\li2160 {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain maternal behavior is based both on  }{\plain \ul learning}{\plain  and hormonal changes that favor nuturing\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain cortical control of sex = }{\plain \ul learned}{\plain  (probably 2.5 myrs +)\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \tab \tab advantages in choosing mate for cleverness (selects for intelligence)\par
}{\plain \tab \tab advantages of birth spacing (resources, other infants and children)\par
}{\plain \tab \tab selective role of scent (\'93group\'94 smell related to diet)\par
}{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain generalized intelligence = primate characteristic but increasingly }{\plain \ul learned}{\plain \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \tab \tab ability of problem solve & improvise (see \'91dialectic\'92)\par
}\pard \fi0\li2880 {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain opposable thumb offers mechanical ability to modify materials (especially tools)\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \tab \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain }{\plain \ul learning}{\plain  allows for expanded range, new ecological niches, increased cooperation)\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain stone tools: first clearly associated with }{\plain \ul homo habilis}{\plain \tab \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \tab \tab Hadar in Ethiopia 2.5 myrs\par
}{\plain \tab \tab Olduvai in Tanzania 2.0 myrs\par
}{\plain \tab \tab Lake Turkana in Kenya 2.0 myrs\par
}{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain fire: ca. 1.6 myrs ago, first associated with }{\plain \ul homo erectus}{\plain  (advantages: protection, 
nutrition, sociability, etc) \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain the first evidence for the Food Pyramid: 780,000 bp in Israel, grapes, olives, water 
chestnuts.  In Spain 300,000 bp red deer, elephants, rhino, ibex, boar, rabbit, birds, turtles, 
fish, oysters, limpets, mussels\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
\pard \s1\fi-720\li720\tx720 {\*\pn \pnlvlblt\pnstart1\pnindent1\pnhang{\pntxta \'95}}

{\plain art, religion (50,000 to 80,000 years ago) (but whose? H. sapiens sapiens or H. 
neanderthalensis?) (and what about the 223,000 year old Venus figurine from Israel?)\par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\plain Evolution of the Human Mind and Spirit: The Upper Paleolithic (ca. 35,000 - 10, 000 years ago).\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain At about one million years ago, }{\plain \ul H. erectus}{\plain  gives way to archaic }{\plain \ul H. sapiens}{\plain ; this corresponds with 
a new tool industry called }{\plain \b Acheulean}{\plain .  The characteristic tool is a bifacially flaked hand axe.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain There is interesting evidence of what may have been cannibalism from a site that dates to 800,000 
bp, Gran Dolina in Spain.  The interpretation of cannibalism is difficult (was there famine?  Was 
eating the dead part of a ritual?).  There is no archaeological evidence at the site of the Acheulean 
tool industry.  Human bones with cut marks were found, and their discard with food remains 
suggest that they were used for food.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain Another site, dated at 300,000 bp Sima de los Huesos yielded evidence of ritual disposal of the 
dead, with the body still intact and dropped down a shaft.  This deep cavern may have represented 
a \'93return to the womb.\'94\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain It is worth reflecting on the ways that the landscape comes, by Upper Paleolithic times, to figure 
so prominently into human cosmology.  Caves, springs, mountains, bodies of water, and other 
features begin now clearly to have spiritual meaning.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain By 200,000 years ago, blade tools (this tool manufacture technique is termed }{\plain \b Levallois}{\plain ) used a 
\'93prepared surface\'94 that yielded }{\plain \b both}{\plain  the central tool }{\plain \b and }{\plain the flakes that had been struck off to 
make it that could also be used as tools.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain In Europe, archaic H. sapiens evolved into }{\plain \ul H. sapiens neanderthalensis}{\plain  by 127,000 bp.   Adapted 
to the cold climate which peaked ca. 75,000 years ago, and isolated from the Near East and 
Africa by ice sheets, Neanderthals had stocky bodies, broad noses, projecting faces, and barrel 
chests\'96all physical adaptations to extreme cold.  Their brains were modern-sized or a little larger, 
but they had lower foreheads and weaker chins than modern humans.  They were nimble and 
powerfully built, a good thing since some of their prey were cave bears, wolves, and saber-toothed cats.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain Upper Paleolithic: time scale of tens of thousands of years (as opposed to millennia) highlight 
rapid advances in cultural (as contrasted with biological or biocultural) adaptation. \par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain The relationship between Neanderthals and fully anatomically modern }{\plain \ul Homo sapiens sapiens}{\plain  (Cro 
Magnon) has been hotly debated for a century.  Were Neanderthals killed off?  Did they compete 
and lose out?  Did the reproduce less successfully?  Were they absorbed into the Cro Magnon 
population?  Current understandings favor a moderate position, that Neanderthals could speak 
and probably interbred with Cro Magnon as the latter spread and mated with existing populations.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain Neanderthal refinement of blade tool technology is termed Mousterian, which is a veritable tool 
\'93kit\'94 that varies from site to site reflecting the particular hunting and other needs of groups 
making use of the local ecology.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain In Israel, a Neanderthal male aged 25-25 years old was placed in a pit, on his back with his arms 
folded over his chest.  Some time later, after complete decay of attaching ligaments, the grave was 
reopened and the skull removed.  A Neanderthal burial ca. 50,000 years ago at Shanidar Cave in 
Iraq contained flowers, a wreath about the head, and the body painted with ochre, perhaps the 
first evidence of a belief in the afterlife.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain Cro Magnon (}{\plain \ul Homo sapiens sapiens}{\plain ): had Art, Belief, Technological Expertise by ca. 35,000 
years ago.\par
}}