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\pard 
{\plain \b\fs26 Evolution and Genetics: Mechanisms of Change}{\plain \par
}\pard 
{\plain \tab Charles }{\plain \b Darwin }{\plain (1809-1882), grandson of the physician Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802) 
and Gregor }{\plain \b Mendel}{\plain  (1822-1884), a monk who lived in an abbey in what is now the Czech 
Republic, never met, but their pioneering work gives us the framework to understand biological 
change at molecular, individual organism, and broader ecosystemic levels.\par
}{\plain \tab You will discuss the larger mechanisms of genetics and evolution in your recitation 
sections, but here are some of the important points you should be sure to understand:\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \par
}\pard \fi-6480\li6480\tx720\tx1440\tx2160\tx2880\tx3600\tx4320\tx5040\tx5760\tx6480 
{\plain \b\i\ul factors creating variation\tab \tab \tab \tab \tab \tab factors sorting variation}{\plain \par
}\pard 
{\plain \tab }{\plain \b mutation}{\plain  (random alteration in gene)\par
}{\plain An error in replication or other alteration of the nucleotide base sequence creating a change in the 
sequence of base pairs on a DNA molecule.\par
}{\plain \par
}\pard \fi-7200\li7200\tx720\tx1440\tx2160\tx2880\tx3600\tx4320\tx5040\tx5760\tx6480\tx7200 
{\plain \tab }{\plain \b gene flow }{\plain (genetic exchange between two populations)\tab <\'97>\tab }{\plain \b natural selection}{\plain  
(bioadaptation)\par
}\pard 
{\plain \par
}{\plain \tab }{\plain \b gene drift}{\plain  (evolution occurring through random changes in allele frequency over time)\par
}{\plain The effects of genetic drift are strongest in }{\plain \b small populations}{\plain .  The main result of genetic drift is 
loss of genetic variation.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain Below a brief overview excerpted from the article }{\plain \ul What is Genetic Engineering?}{\plain  By Dr. Ricarda 
Steinbrecher in the journal }{\plain \ul Synthesis/Regeneration}{\plain , Vol. 18:9-12 (Winter 1999). \par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \b What is a cell? }{\plain \par
}{\plain A cell is the smallest living unit, the basic structural and functional unit of all living matter, 
whether that is a plant, an animal or a fungus.  Some organisms such as amoebae, bacteria, some 
algae and fungi are single_celled _ the entire organism is contained in just one cell. Humans are 
quite different and are made up of approximately 3 million cells _(3,000,000,000,000 cells). Cells 
can take many shapes depending on their function, but commonly they will look like a brick with 
rounded comers or an angular blob _ a building block.  Cells are stacked together to make up 
tissues, organs or structures (brain, liver, bones, skin, leaves, fruit etc.).   In an organism, cells 
depend on each other to perform various functions and tasks; some cells will produce enzymes, 
others will store sugars or fat; different cells again will build the skeleton or be in charge of 
communication like nerve cells; others are there for defense, such as white blood cells or stinging 
cells in jelly fish and plants. In order to be a fully functional part of the whole, most cells have got 
the same information and resources and the same basic equipment. \par
}{\plain A cell belonging to higher organisms (e.g. plant or animal) is composed of: \par
}{\plain \tab \'97a cell MEMBRANE enclosing the whole cell. (Plant cells have an additional cell wall 
for structural reinforcement.) \par
}{\plain \tab \'97many ORGANELLES, which are functional components equivalent to the organs in the 
body of an animal e.g. for digestion, storage, excretion. \par
}{\plain \tab \'97a NUCLEUS, the command center of the cell. It contains all the vital information 
needed by the cell or the whole organism to function, grow and reproduce. This information is 
stored in the form of a genetic code on the chromosomes, which are situated inside the nucleus. \par
}{\plain }{\plain \b What is a stem cell?}{\plain \par
}{\plain These are primitive cells in marrow that are required to make red cells, white cells and platelets 
(see \'93\'93hematopoiesis\'94\'94). Generally, the stem cells are largely found in the marrow but some leave 
the marrow and circulate in the blood. Using special techniques, the stem cells in blood can be 
collected, preserved by freezing and, later, thawed and used for stem cell therapy.  }{\field{\*\fldinst  HYPERLINK "http://www.cllinfo.com" }{\fldrslt{{\*\cs56\ul\cf2 www.cllinfo.com/Glossary/glossary_S.html}}}}{\plain  \par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \b Proteins}{\plain  are the basic building materials of a cell, made by the cell itself. Looking at them in 
close_up they consist of a chain of amino_acids, small specific building blocks that easily link up. 
Though the basic structure of proteins is linear, they are usually folded and folded again into 
complex structures. Different proteins have different functions. They can be transport molecules 
(e.g. oxygen binding hemoglobin of the red blood cells); they can be antibodies, messengers, 
enzymes (e.g. digestion enzymes) or hormones (e.g. growth hormones or insulin). Another group 
is the structural proteins that form boundaries and provide movement, elasticity and the ability to 
contract. Muscle fibers, for example, are mainly made of proteins.  Proteins are thus crucial in the 
formation of cells and in giving cells the capacity to function properly. \par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \b Chromosome}{\plain s means "colored bodies" (they can be seen under the light microscope, using a 
particular stain). They look like bundled up knots and loops of a long thin thread. Chromosomes 
are the storage place for all genetic _ that is hereditary _ information. This information is written 
along the thin thread, called DNA. "DNA" is an abbreviation for deoxyribo-nucleic acid, a specific 
acidic material that can be found in the nucleus. The genetic information is written in the form of a 
code, almost like a music tape. To ensure the thread and the information are stable and safe, a 
twisted double stranded thread is used _ the famous }{\plain \b double helix}{\plain . When a cell multiplies it will 
also copy all the DNA and pass it on to the daughter cell. \par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \b Genome}{\plain  refers to the totality of the genetic information of an organism. Cells of humans, for 
example, possess two sets of 23 different chromosomes, one set from the mother and the other 
from _the father. The DNA of each human cell corresponds to 2 meters of DNA if it is stretched 
out and it is thus crucial to organize the DNA in chromosomes, so as to avoid knots, tangles and 
breakages. The length of DNA contained in the human body is approximately 60,000,000,000 
kilometers. This is equivalent to the distance to the moon and back 8000 times! \par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \b Information}{\plain  contained on the chromosomes in the DNA is written and coded in such a way that 
it can be understood by almost all living species on earth. It is thus termed the universal code of 
life. In this coding system, cells need only four symbols (called nucleotides) to spell out all the\par
}{\plain instructions of how to make any protein. Nucleotides are the units DNA is composed of and their 
individual names are commonly abbreviated to the letters A, C G and T These letters are arranged 
in 3_letter words which in turn code for a particular amino acid. The information for how any cell 
is structured or how it functions is all encoded in single and distinct genes. A Gene is a certain 
segment (length) of DNA with specific instructions for the production of commonly one specific 
protein. The coding sequence of a gene is, on average about 1000 letters long.  Genes code for 
example for insulin, digestive enzymes, blood clotting proteins, or pigments. \par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain the above definitions are taken from the article by Dr. Steinbrecher on the website 
<http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/GEessays/gedanger.htm>\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \par
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{\plain }{\plain \b gene}{\plain  = a portion of the DNA molecule that directs the development of an identifiable trait; 
genes are maps and strategies for growth and life functions\par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
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{\plain the }{\plain \b gene pool}{\plain  is the total of all genes present in a population\par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
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{\plain }{\plain \b alleles}{\plain  are alternative forms of a gene (eye color is an example)\par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
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{\plain }{\plain \b genotype}{\plain  = actual genetic composition of an organism\par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
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{\plain }{\plain \b phenotype}{\plain  = the physical, outward appearance of an organism\par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
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{\plain }{\plain \b chromosomes}{\plain  occur in pairs (one from each parent; 23 in humans)\par
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{\plain most genetic traits are }{\plain \b non-concordant}{\plain  (e.g., height does not predict skin or eye color) \par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
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{\plain most traits are }{\plain \b clinal}{\plain  (e.g., the percentage of a population with a particular trait varies 
incrementally over geographical space)\par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
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{\plain }{\plain \b independent assortment}{\plain  (non-concordance) renders categorization based on phenotype 
(e.g., skin color).  Harvard University's world_renowned geneticist and evolutionary 
biologist Richard Lewontin\'92s famous 1972 computer analysis finally swept the old race 
categories out of biology. "The races are primarily defined according to skin color, which 
is a genetic trait," he says. "The question I asked was, if you looked at two people of 
different races, would there be other genetic differences between them?"  The results 
confounded the old assumption that there are profound biological differences between the 
races. Of all the genes in human being, about 75 per cent are identical in every person; 
only 25 per cent vary from person to person. And of that variable amount, Professor 
Lewontin demonstrated, 85 per cent of the difference would be present even if the two 
people were fairly closely related; that is, an ethnic subgroup, like Norwegians. Another 9 
per cent of the genetic variation results from individuals being members of geographically 
separated societies\'96a Spaniard and an Italian, for example. And only about 6 per cent is 
the result of the two people being from what we call separate races, based on what we see 
(phenotype).  Hence, Professor Lewontin discovered that any person's \'91race\'92 accounts for 
only about 0.24 per cent (or 6 per cent of 25 per cent) of her/his genetic make_up.\par
}{\pntext\pard \'95\tab}
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{\plain }{\plain \b evolution}{\plain  may be seen as the continual change in the frequency of certain genes in a 
population in response to the demands of the environment (climate, resources, etc) \par
}\pard {\*\pn \pnlvlcont}
{\plain \par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \b\fs26 Genetics and Contemporary Society}{\plain \tab \tab \tab \tab \tab \par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain \b Explore}{\plain  the site }{\field{\*\fldinst  HYPERLINK "
" }{\fldrslt{{\*\cs56\ul\cf2 }{\*\cs56\cf2 http://www.nutball.com/classes/skipper/jscarpe1.htm}}}}{\plain  then visit the sites for major 
companies that employ the new genetic research such as Novartis }{\field{\*\fldinst  HYPERLINK "
" }{\fldrslt{{\*\cs56\ul\cf2 http://www.novartis.com/}}}}{\plain  or 
Archer-Daniels-Midland }{\field{\*\fldinst  HYPERLINK "
" }{\fldrslt{{\*\cs56\ul\cf2 http://www.admworld.com/}}}}{\plain  and }{\plain \b compare}{\plain  the arguments.\par
}{\plain \par
}{\plain Ethical and Religious Implications\par
}{\plain \tab Isn\'92t this Playing God?\par
}{\plain \tab What are Clones and What are their Rights?\par
}{\plain \tab Will there be two groups, Humans and cloned Slaves?\par
}{\plain Social and Economic Implications\par
}{\plain \tab Who can Benefit?  \par
}{\plain \tab Who will Pay?  \par
}{\plain \tab Who Owns the New Organisms?\par
}{\plain Medical Implications\par
}{\plain \tab What are the Benefits?\par
}{\plain \tab Will this change the ability of Humans to Adapt?\par
}{\plain \tab Are their hidden Risks?\par
}{\plain Environmental Implications\par
}{\plain \tab Will this alter \'91natural\'92 Evolution?\par
}{\plain \tab Is the gene plasm of fundamental crops (maize for example) at Risk?\par
}{\plain Implications for Warfare and Terrorism\par
}{\plain Technical Issues\par
}{\plain \tab Gene Gun: trout genes in strawberries\par
}{\plain \tab Containment: escaping BT corn pollen\par
}{\plain \tab Genetic clean-up: how to sanitize bioterrorism incidents\par
}{\plain \par
}}